World Music - Authenticity and Ethucs in World Music Essay

World Music - Authenticity and Ethucs in World Music - Essay Example According to Byrne, â€Å"What is considered authentic today was probably some kind of bastard fusion a few years ago.† (â€Å"I Hate World Music†). Similar views are expressed by Sasha Frere-Jones who comments (â€Å"Bingo in Swansea†): â€Å"World music† is a category that does nobody any favors. Entirely disparate performers, like the dapper Brazilian singer-songwriter Caetano Veloso and the African blues guitarist Ali Farka Toure, get lumped together in American record stores simply because they don’t sing exclusively in English. Personally speaking, I do not agree with this at all. I am a fan of fusion music. Not only do such recordings provide us a celestial insight into various vivid and exotic ethnicities of the world, they also offer a unique blend of different cultures to meet our ever-changing tastes. An authentic World Music is spontaneous and preserves the actual events, apart from being directly carried on from cultural tradition. The true music prodigies of the world are those who play not merely for money but primarily for their indomitable passion for music. We talk about ‘Globalization’. Is it only restricted to world business and economical spectrum? If the answer is no, then why can’t we accept the mingling of cultures? In fact, we have already accepted it long time back. If it would not have been so, we would have stuck to burgers and pies rather than extending our taste-buds to pizzas, momos, chowmein, enchiladas, nachos, and endless menu of dishes from all around the globe. For those who are of the opinion that world music is misleading the present youth, I would like to ask, â€Å"When we can encourage multinational companies and rejoice multi-cuisine restaurants, then can’t we have a similar passion for multi-cultured music?† Variety is indeed the spice of life. In our busy and stressful schedules, tuning on to the apt music is a real healer. I

Ethical Decision Making by Individuals Essay Example for Free

Ethical Decision Making by Individuals Essay Existing theoretical models of individual ethical decision making in organizations place little or no emphasis on characteristics of the ethical issue itself. This article (a) proposes an issue-contingent model containing a new set of variables called moral intensity: (b) using concepts, theory, and evidence derived largely from social psychology, argues that moral intensity influences every component of moral decision making and behavior: (c) offers four research propositions, and (d) discusses implications of the theory. Conclusions and Implications Existing theoretical models have ignored the effect of characteristics of the moral issue itself on ethical decision making and behavior in organizations. Taken at face value, these models suggest that individuals will decide and behave in the same manner regardless of the nature of the moral issue involved. An employee of a drug manufacturer would view the release of a dangerous drug by his or her firm with the same alarm (or lack of alarm) that he or she viewed the theft of a few diskettes from the company supply cabinet by a fellow employee. The issue-contingent model proposed here explicitly rejects this view and suggests that the moral intensity of the issue itself has a significant effect on moral decision making and behavior at all stages of the process. If this model is found to have empirical support, the testing of other models would be significantly affected. Controlling for issue traits would become an integral part of a meaningful test of Trevinos (1986) person-situation interactionist model, for example; the relative importance of personal factors and situational factors might vary considerably, from issue to issue. Similarly, issue charucteristics could alter the balance of teleological and deontological considerations in the moral evaluation stage of Hunt and Vitells (1986) general theory model of marketing ethics. Perhaps the most important potential impact of an empirical finding that ethical decision making and behavior are issue contingent involves the applicability of the models themselves. Moral intensity is expected to play a major role in the recognition of moral issues and, hence, in the actual engagement of moral decision-making processes instead of, or in addition to, other decision-making schemata. Simply stated, the details of moral decision-making and behavior processes become irrelevant if the person does not recognize that he or she is dealing with a moral issue. Future models of ethical decision making should include some consideration of the effect of the moral agents failure to recognize the moral issue. Moral intensity is also relevant to the general applicability of Kohlbergs (1976) theory of cognitive moral development. If moral development is issue contingent, as this article and some emerging empirical evidence suggest, then Kohlbergs theory would have to be substantially revised, and much of the research based on it would have to be reappraised. Future research based on his developmental theory would have to control for traits of the moral issues involved. From a practical point of view, issue contingency is important to normative judgments of moral decisions and of the people who make them. Many of the elements of moral intensity (magnitude of consequences, probability of effect, temporal immediacy, and concentration of effect) are directly related to judgments of the importance of moral issues. If these elements of moral intensity are found to be positively linked to moral behavior, it can be concluded that people generally behave better when the moral issue is important than they do when it is unimportant. Regardless of a persons views regarding the overall moral tenor of society or its alleged decline in recent years, he or she could easily be encouraged by the finding that peoples best moral behavior is inspired by issues of substantial importance.

Construction Waste Management Strategies

Construction Waste Management Strategies Introduction The construction sector is an important solid waste generator. In Brazil, the recent economic and politics growth has rapidly encouraged further development and investment in the construction sector. Nevertheless, such speedy growth of the Brazilian’s construction has brought an elevated concern and attention to the waste problem and its management for a developing country growth like Brazil. Nagalli, 2012 Like in Europe, Brazil has a compulsory regulation on construction projects to reduce the construction and demolition waste. The national laws obligate the builders to be responsible for the waste of their works. It is legally consolidated and requires the builders a proactive posture in sense to planning the waste management. Nagalli, 2012. The municipalities are the responsible party on the waste management in Brazil, except for the private investments such as (industries, private constructions or demolitions, etc.). Bà ¡ez et al. 2012. However, only (11) which presents (0.25%) of about 5000 Brazilian municipalities have construction and demolition (CD) waste recycling center As well as there are (13) stationary plants and recycling waste center produced in local communities. Therefore, it’s quite clear that a large part of the waste is not recycled in Brazil. It is also worth mentioning that since the established of CONAMA 2002 (Brazilian Environmental Protection Agency); things are moving better and all Brazilian local governments are nowadays obliged to prepare and adopt strategies for sustainable management of CD waste. MMA, 2002. All investors are obliged to produce feasibility studies plans of the production and use of construction and demolition (CD) wastes materials of each project. Notwithstanding, a very little amount of researches have been conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of the construction and demolition (CD) waste recycling centers. Professional inquiries illustrated that private projec ts which produces 20 tons per hour (t/h) or less of CD waste processing flow will probably not be met financially to continue, due to the low productivity and lack manufactured product prices, as the use of manufactured products are still not widespread so the investment in recycling on large scale with complex facilities centers will not be cost-effective neither. 02 Feasibility Analysis : Many studies and researches are taken place to develop plans for the feasibility study for the complex projects and the (CD) waste recycling centers in Brazil. One of this study was by UNIDO (1987), which presented a structural model for feasibility studies to complex projects, including a huge investments from different sources of funding and simplify the study and structure then adding control elements described by another important study from Kohler (1997), the following main stages were identified in preliminary feasibility studies for construction and demolition (CD) waste recycling centers as follows: Analysis of market needs and the amount of existing competition from different sources. Depends on the geographical location of the center. Assessment and estimated of waste generation. Depends on the geographical location of the center. The estimated incomes and cost from the construction and demolition waste. Investment analysis in construction and demolition waste field. Market Competition study analysis: There are plentiful resources for civil construction combining several elements in Brazil. The main consumer construction and demolition waste centers are located in areas with good and convenient quality of different reserves. According to DNPM (2003), â€Å"sand and gravel are low in price and produced in large quantities. Transport costs correspond to around 2/3 of the end price of the product, which make it necessary to produce sand and gravel as near as possible to the consumer market, which are the urban agglomerates†. In Brazil, which is one of the developing countries, the rate of consumption is estimated at approximately (2) tons /inhabitant a year. Sindipedras (2004). Comparing that figure with Europe countries, we found that Brazil has low consumption where the average consumption in Europe reaches (8-10) tons/inhabitant a year. Taking into account that the population in Brazil is about (180 million) IBGE(2000), so the total consumption estimated to nearly (270) tons a year about (175) million cubic meter. Table no.1: The rate of construction aggregates prices without transport.( SINDIBRITA.2004). Aggregates Aggregate grading Prices (excl. taxes) ( Prices (incl.taxes) (diameter in mm) (GBP $/m ³) (GBP $/t) (GBP $/m ³) (GBP $/t) Sands 3.10 1.80 4.00 2.35 Stone powders 3.10 2.00 4.00 2.55 Gravel 0, 1, 2, 3 from 5.0 to 75.0 3.80 2.60 4.85 3.36 Mixed Gravel from 5.0 to 55.0 3.10 1.75 4.00 2.27 ESTIMATED PRODUCTION OF CD WASTE We should know the productivity and collection of (CD) waste to find out the needs and the interest of developing and establishing recycling centers. From Table no.2 below, estimates from the production and collection of construction and demolition (CD) waste in some of the main Brazilian Cities: Table 2: Estimative for production / collection of CD waste in some Brazilian cities (Nunes, 2004) Cities Estimative of CD waste Year- Population (IBGE, Production per inhabitant (kg/inhab.day) Collection per inhabitant Produced Collected 2000) (kg/inhab.day) Riode Janeiro n/a 1,100 2003 5,850,000 n/a 0.20 Salvador n/a. 2,750 2000 2,450,000 n/a 1.15 Sà £o Paulo 16,000 3,400 2001 10,440,000 1.55 0.40 Ribeirà £o Preto 1,100 200 2003 505,000 2.00 0.55 Sà £o Josà © 740 n/a 1995 540,000 1.50 n/a Piracicaba 635 n/a. 2003 330,000 1.88 n/a Vinhedo n/a. 10 2003 48,000 n/a 0.32 Guarulhos n/a. n/a. 1,100,000 n/a n/a Ribeirà £o Pires n/a. n/a. 105,000 n/a. n/a Sà £o Josà © do Rio Preto 690 n/a. 1996 360,000 1.92 n/a Santo Andrà © 1,000 n/a 1996 650,000 1.56 n/a. Belo Horizonte n/a. 2,300 2000 2,240,000 n/a 1.05 Londrina 1,300 n/a 2003 450,000 2.86 n/a Brasà ­lia n/a. n/a 2,055,000 n/a n/a Macaà © 40 2003 133,000 n/a 0.34 Florianà ³polis 635 n/a 2001 286,000 2.23 n/a Averages 2.00 0.65 The Rio de Janeiro city estimates a collection of 1,100 ton/day (0.20 kg/inhabitant .day), an amount below the average in other cities under study. The reason that some municipalities are less than the average for the disposal of waste is the illegal and calculated within the general waste in official statistical tables. IBGE (2000) ESTIMATED REVENUES AND COSTS In Brazil, the equipment used in the (CD) waste recycling center requires large investment. Most equipment used in the mining sector, which is one of the largest and powerful sector in Brazil, this was calculated when analysis or estimate the profits and benefits of investment. The Table no.3 below shows the form of the fixed capital investment required for (20) tons/hour which we can call it as a small center and (100) tons/hour as a medium center depending on the size of the production and the new or used equipment. It’s possible to add some cost with equipment and site, the costs with site acquisition, transportation and the way of disposal the recycling center rejects. Nunes (2004) Through consultations to many professionals, it was found that the minimum size of a site for  a recycling center would be: (a) 6.000 m ² the appropriate area for the (20) tons/hour recycling centers; (b) 30.000 m ² area for the (100) tons/hour recycling centers. Table 3: Investment in fixed capital and the operational costs (summary). SINDIBRITA (2004). Operational Costs Fixed Costs CONCLUSION: The Brazilian civil construction’s aggregates are available in wide range with good quality and close to the urban consumer centers. It’s worth mentioning that both aggregates as well as several new construction projects prices have been low for some time. Hence, and in order to attract more clients and bring better attention to such industry, the prices of the recycled aggregates must be competitive with the natural aggregates. Meanwhile, the (CD) waste reception as well as the recycling centers has to compete with the landfills. According to the Brazilian state-of-art, large amounts of inert material are usually needed to cover the landfill cells. The material is also required to build the access roads and maneuvering areas for the waste collection trucks on the landfills. Therefore, the inert landfills do set as high competitors with recycling centers in relation to reception of (CD) waste. It was therefore recommended that two different recycling centers’ pro jects should be analyzed in order to capitalize and boost such industry forward: one, a small scale (20 t/h), and the other midsize (100 t/h) with the assumption of the use of processed products and the absence of (CD) waste recycling projects in the country due to the lack of such industry tradition, the feasibility of future private recycling centers will initially be somewhere between the two aforementioned capacities. Nunes (2004) References: Andrà © Nagalli , (2012) â€Å"Quantitative Method for Estimating Construction Waste Generation† Bà ¡ez AG, Sà ¡ez PV, Merino MR, Navarro JG (2012). Waste Management. MMA (Ministry of the Environment) (2002) CONAMA Resolution no. 307. UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization) (1987). Kohler, G. (1997), Practice of Recycling: Construction Materials. CONAMA 2002(Brazilian Environmental Protection Agency). Ângulo, S. C. (2002) (Development of new markets for the recycling of CD waste). DNPM (National Department for Mineral Research) (2006). Sindipedra (Federation of the Gravel Mining Industry of the State of Sà £o Paulo) (2004). IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) (2000)

Essay --

Throughout Jewish History we have seen significant transitions from 2,000 B.C.E. to 1492 C.E. These transitions changed many different aspects of Jewish life. There are three specific events or turning points that caused tremendous change in Jewish life and had many ramifications. These three events were the Formation of the United Monarchy, the Rise of Hellenism and the Golden Age of Spain. Each of these transitions impacted Judaism in different ways that changed it forever. The different groups of people involved changed different parts of Jewish life including linguistics, politics, traditions, and literature. The United Monarchy took place between 1020 and 921 B.C.E. It was the transition between a tribal society and an actual form of government. In this monarchy, Samuel appointed Saul to be the first King. Saul was replaced by King David and eventually was followed by Solomon. This era was the most documented era throughout Biblical history. During this time period, David was God’s right hand man. Jewish people believed that the Messiah was once a living King somewhere in the Davidic bloodline. They believe the Messiah in the Bible was a human King. The word Messiah means â€Å"anointed one†. David is the one who brings together loose tribes into a government. He institutes many new things like scribe culture and census records. This becomes known as the prototype for the ideal Jewish monarch. He establishes the city of Jerusalem or the â€Å"City of David†. His legacy becomes a major theme in Jewish history. Through him, the First temple was built for worship and f or sacrifice in 950 B.C.E. This temple was extremely important to the Jewish people. It was the center for worship and politics for the kingdom of Judah. The Babylonians e... ...ed, you sent Seraphim to tell him of your great goodness. They sat down beside me and then Michael said: â€Å"This is God’s message who pleads your cause: ‘On the day that you cross waters of sorrow I am with you. When the enemy draws near, the rivers will not drowned you.’ † These three transitions had a huge effect on Jewish life in many different ways and were major turning points in Jewish history. In all three of these periods the Jews underwent many changes in their lives in many different categories. Although massive changes were made, in each of these eras the Jews somehow managed to keep their cultural identity even while adapting to other ways of life. They never lost sight of their heritage. Therefore, the Formation of the United Monarchy, the Rise of Hellenism and the Golden Age of Spain were the three most important points of ruptures in Jewish history.

Achetypal Works of Dystopian Literature Essay -- Essays Papers

Achetypal Works of Dystopian Literature The endeavor to achieve utopia, the best existence obtainable to humanity, is a response to the problems present in society. It is a way of dealing in the imagination with these problems, suggesting an ideal for society to strive towards. From Plato’s Republic on, however, utopia has had a characteristic shortcoming. Huxley observed that the inhabitants of Utopia are radically unlike human beings. Their creators spend all their ink and energy in discussing, not what actually happens, but what would happen if men and women were quite different from what they are and from what, throughout recorded history, they have always been (Kennedy 44). The search for utopia continues strongly today, except in place of the traditional, constructive, positive utopias, we have what is almost a new literary strain-utopia in reverse, cacotopia, the worst of all possible worlds (Herzog 74). This anti-utopian society is one in which characters lead dehumanized lives because a utopian ideal has fallen apart or gone afoul of its original intent. The main characters in dystopian novels are often trapped in their lives and struggling to escape; these novels usually intend to criticize existing social conditions and political systems. While utopian literature portrays ideal worlds, dystopian literature depicts the flaws and failures of imaginative societies. Often these societies are related to utopias, and the dystopian writers have chosen to reveal shortcomings of those social systems previously considered ideal (Booker 10). Many critics rank Aldous Huxely’s Brave New World and George Orwell’s novel Nineteen Eighty-Four as two model works of dystopian literature (Cushing 521). Both novels ... ...ter with Wendy Cole, â€Å"What Ever Happened To Play?† in Time Magazine, April 28, 2001. Available http://www.time.com/time/education/printout/0,8816,107264,00.html. Kluger, Jeffrey, â€Å"Next Up: Prozac,† in Time Magazine, Vol. 152, No. 22, November 30, 1998. Available http://www.time.com/time/magazine/1998/dom/981130/cover_story.the_age_of_4a.html. McMichael, Charles T., â€Å"Aldous Huxley’s ‘Island’: The Final Vision,† in Studies in the Literary Imagination. Vol. 1, No. 2, April, 1968. Orwell, George. Nineteen Eighty-Four. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc., 1981. Schellenberg, James, â€Å"Review of George Orwell’s 1984,† in George Orwell. New York: Penguin, 1984. Anonymous, â€Å"Are We Living in an Orwellian World?† Available http://www.newspeak.com/Newspeak.htm. von Hoffman, Nicholas, â€Å"Huxley Vindicated,† in The Spectator, Vol. 249, No. 8036, July 17, 1982.

How have the values of the boys changed by Chapter 10? Essay

In chapter 10 there is a shift of values form a democracy to a dictatorship. Following Jack’s rebellion most of the boys have left camp and joined forces with Jack, now known as ‘The Chief’, at Castle Rock. Since they first landed on the island as innocent school children a lot has changed, as many of the values which they once held are disregarded on account of them being stranded on the island. When Jack first arrived on the island he was the eldest and naturally assumed that it was his destiny to be in charge. As head choir boy, Jack has been set aside from the rest, â€Å"golden cap badge† and it is obvious that back home he was very important and was given the authority in terms of the choir. Due to the control he exerts we can understand that prior to landing on the island, Jack was a leader who ruled by fear. When they first meet the rest of the boys it takes the combined efforts of begging â€Å"But, Merridew. Please, Merridew †¦ can’t we?† and a boy fainting for him to consider the two groups merging. Here we can see Jack’s instant aversion to situations where he is not fully in charge. This means that often times he would prefer separatism, as we see when he distinguishes the Hunters, to co-habitation where making compromises and accept other people’s points of view. We know that Jack doesn’t like this because before he goes to form his own tribe he says † It’s time some people knew they’ve got to keep quiet and leave deciding things to the rest of us.† Jack was at first in agreement with the request for democracy but this was only because he was convinced that he would win the vote. When he realises that he has in fact lost out to Ralph he â€Å"blush[es] with mortification†. He is not sure whether to stay or go when he is offered charge of the Hunters. By taking over the hunters Jack tries to gain favour with the boys because he thinks that the boys will become dependent on him. However the longing for rescue and the fact that the tool for rescue is Ralph’s brainchild means that Ralph continued to have the upper hand on Jack. Despite this Jack still tries his best to prove himself to the boys. For example, at first like many of the boys on the island Jack is unable to kill however now, behind the mask, he kills to show his power and control over the lives of others. However William Golding makes the death of Simon strange, in that Jack does not take responsibility and is almost afraid of what he has become. â€Å"Roger gathered a handful of stones and began to throw them. Yet there was a space round Henry, perhaps six yards in diameter, into which he dare not throw. Here, invisible yet strong, was the taboo of the old life. Round the squatting child was the protection of parents and school and policemen and the law.† Roger is portrayed to be a very cruel character and this quotation shows the beginning if the boy’s falls into uncivilisation however at this early stage the boys still act in a civilised nature. However like many of the older boys Roger chooses to test the water and soon enough the urge to destroy overcomes him. Despite this Roger still feels restricted by â€Å"parents and school and policemen and the law†-the adults who make the rules and make sure they are followed. However before long, Roger and most of the other boys lose their respect for values and morals, and violence, torture, and murder break out as the savagery becomes the distinctive sway i n the group At first Ralph is esteemed and supports all the boys on the island due to the way that he has kept a level head despite being on tropical island. His strong-willed nature means that when others break down he is still solid. However with talks of beasts and mutiny Ralph becomes disgruntled and begins to think of home a lot. Towards the end of the book despite having the symbol of democracy, the conch he feels that that this is useless against Jack’s oppressive regime.

Cognitive Approach to Psychology

Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Shane Galvin Class: 061/AT Applied Psychology Teacher: Carol Neenan Title: Psychological Perspective Word count: 3121 The Cognitive Approach to Psychology Contents Page 1 – Contents Page 2 – Introduction Page 3 – History Page 4 – Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science Page 6- Research methods i) iii) v) Reaction time Studies Eye Tracking Studies Psychophysics ii) iv) vi) Priming Studies Lateralisation Studies Single-Cell Studies Page 8 – Memory Storage and Models Page 10 – Therapeutic Applications Page 11 – Evaluation Page 12 – Bibliography Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology The Cognitive Approach to Psychology What is Cognitive Psychology? Literally, ‘Cognition’ means knowing, but in the greater framework of Psychology, Cognition is thinking, perceiving information, understanding, construction and presentation of an answer to a question. Essentially, cognition is a ter m for the use of our mental processes. â€Å"Cognitive Psychology is the study of higher mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking. † (Gerrig & Zimbardo. 2002) Cognitive Psychology uses scientific methods and scrutiny to develop a deeper understanding of the human mind, rather than the brain, a methodology perhaps adapted from Behaviourism, in which modern Cognitive Psychology holds its roots. Yet, unlike behaviourism, which only focuses on observable behaviour, Cognitive Psychology is also concerned with internal mental states. 2 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology History In 1932, Behaviourist Edward Tolman published his book â€Å"Purposive Behaviour in Animals and Men† In his works Tolman studied rats in a maze, in which food was placed at the end of the maze.In the initial phase of a test, the rat would not be hungry while first entering the maze; this would allow the rat to learn where the food would be and to associate a certain location with the prospect of food. Of course, being armed with such a primal survival instinct would influence the rat to learn and adapt quickly. The rat would move in the general direction of the food as opposed to a specific pathway and Tolman observed that the rats were able to use untrained routes towards the food.This meant that rats had an ability to learn, beyond mere survival instinct and presented a problem for radical behaviourism. Whether Tolman knew it or not, both he and his rats were laying down the groundwork for modern cognitive psychology. Tolman theorized that the animal had developed an image of its environment that it later used as a reference when finding its food. This is called a â€Å"Cognitive Map† i. e. , the rats showed use of their cognitive map by reaching a goal (food) from a number of different starting points.The rats had no instinctive information of the maze and no stimuli that would condition it to have knowledg e of the maze, in other words; the rats learned about their environment and stored the information. This helped to establish some basis for memory storage, learned behaviour and analytical methodology for Cognitive Psychology and would help Psychologists prepare for the â€Å"Cognitive Revolution† of the 1950’s where Cognitive Psychology and its principle areas of research begin to become defined. 3 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied PsychologyThe Term â€Å"Cognitive Psychology† came into use in 1967 in the book Cognitive Psychology by Neisser. â€Å"†¦ the term cognition refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed , reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered and used†¦ it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomena is a cognitive phenomena† (Neisser, 1967) Perhaps it was the invention of the computer that gave Cognitive Psychology the most credibility.For t he first time in history, mankind had something to which it could compare with the human brain or mind, and gave the cognitive approach its terminology. By being able to study a simpler artificial construct, psychologists now had the opportunity to learn more about cognitive processes. â€Å"Cognitive psychology focuses on the way humans process information, looking at how we treat information that comes in to the person (what behaviorists would call stimuli), and how this treatment leads to responses. In other words, they are interested in the variables that mediate between stimulus/input and response/output. (McLeod, 2007) Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science Part of the effect that the cognitive revolution had on its approach is the amalgamation of techniques and ideology’s from other distinct areas of research and study such as linguistics, computer science, developmental psychology and cognitive psychology. It seems as though it is a reaction to the ‘stimulu s-response’ methodology and mode of interpretation espoused by behavioural scientists. Noam Chomsky theorised that the brain had a centre for language acquisition that went beyond what could be explained by behavioural psychology.Jean Piaget had laid out stages of cognitive development that children go through which again could not be explained within the framework of Behaviourism. Computer scientists provided a new way of comparably examining the brain by using computer processing as a method to conceptualise brain processing. â€Å"These scientists maintained their own distinct methodologies†¦ but they held together and remained united in their interest in cognition and in their goal to bring the scientific study of these processes to light. This scientific collective became known as cognitive science† (Solso, et al. 2008) In modern times cognitive science relies on computer science, philosophy, psychology, neuroscience, linguistics and anthropology. Cognitive s cience is heavily influenced by computer science; in computer modelling it is possible to construct and test cognitive models, in the form of artificial intelligence (AI) which has leaked into popular use in the form of interactive technology such as video gaming. 4 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology But it is of particular benefit to psychologists because they can test certain, although limited, cognitive models and theories based on computer models.Cognitive Psychology uses a combination of techniques adapted from other areas of research in order to research its own theories, thus we have an intrinsic relationship between cognitive psychology and other methodologies as illustrated in Gardner’s Hexagon. The diverse range of methodologies in the cognitive approach allows researchers and clinical psychologists to approach problems, issues and hypotheses from a multitude of different backgrounds and allow a wider range of scrutiny to verify their findings in keeping with sc ientific inquiry.Ultimately this allows the cognitive scientist/psychologist to create models of predictive capability that are reproducible which, in Psychology, allows for a greater understanding of the human mind and its mechanisms. 5 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Research Method’s The research methods of cognitive psychology observe and record how we take in information from the physical world, the response time of reactions and how we process this information to perceive it. â€Å"The method’s of cognitive psychology stem from those used by early German researchers studying memory, association and processes.These tools became a mainstay of experimental psychology. As cognitive psychology began to form and become interdisciplinary, methods from other research fields were borrowed and modified for use in the study of cognitive processes. Research methods are the tools by which we come to know and understand, as well as test ideas and develop new ones. â₠¬  (Solso, et al. , 2008) i) Reaction Time Studies: Reaction time studies are used to study cognitive processes and seem to be a defining methodology in the cognitive approach.An example is Donder’s complication studies, in which a subject’s response speed to a white light being turned on was recorded and compared to a yellow light being turned on. Researchers believed early on that the time difference between the two responses could have been attributed to additional processing that it took to differentiate the yellow from the white light. â€Å"Reaction time studies fundamentally rely on the assumption that cognitive activity takes time and that one stage is completed before the other starts. † (Solso, et al. , 2008) ii) Priming studies:Priming studies have been used by psychologists for quite some time. With the invention of computer technology, specifically brain imaging technology, priming studies are becoming more popular. â€Å"In priming studies a stim ulus is briefly presented (a prime) and then, after a delay, a second stimulus is presented and a participant is asked to make some judgement regarding the second stimulus, such as, â€Å"Is the second stimulus the ‘same’ as the first? † (Solso, et al. , 2008) There are two types of priming effects. The Semantic priming Effect and the Object priming effect.The Semantic priming effect is that by activating one item, the acceptability of the second item is enhanced. The Object priming effect is typically in two stages. The first stage is the presentation of an object. This is followed by an interval that may be as short as a millisecond or as long as several months. In the second stage an object similar to the first object is presented, it could be changed, degraded or rotated etc. The participants’ accuracy in remembering the first object is then measured and sometimes the reaction time is measured as well. Tulving & Schacter, 1990) 6 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Ap plied Psychology iii) Eye-Tracking studies: A large portion of the brain is used for interpreting and processing visual sensory information. Researchers have developed techniques to track the movement of eyes in order to determine where a person’s eye is fixed which in particular helps to study people reading, what sentence they are looking at and where they look next. Eye-tracking studies have helped researchers to discover that people who have dyslexia have different eye movements to people who do not have dyslexia. v) Lateralisation Studies Lateralisation studies developed from the idea that the two sides of the brain are responsible for different cognitive functions, in an effort to localise functions within the brain, Broca and Wernicke’s area’s ( centres that are responsible for speech and language) are located on one side of the brain, the left side, this implies that the brain has localised area’s for different functions, these studies were partic ularly important in the area of memory study and studies of amnesiac patients, through the methodology used in lateralisation studies, i. e. riming type tests, and brain imaging we know that the hippocampus is responsible for memory, although there are two hippocampi. There are also more invasive techniques used in lateralisation studies using patients with extreme epilepsy undergoing preventative surgery whereby the corpus collosum, the fibre’s which connect the hemispheres of the brain, are cut. v) Psychophysics Psychophysics is the scientific study of the relationship between stimuli and the sensations and perceptions evoked by these stimuli. (Solso, et al. , 2008) Psychophysicists are interested in perceptual thresholds.For example in Weber’s study of perceptual threshold’s he tested a person’s ability to detect weight. If a person was holding a weighted object, how much weight could be added before the person could detect and perceive the difference in weight. vi) Single-cell Studies Single-cell studies are typically conducted in animals as opposed to humans because of their invasive nature. Hubel & Wiesel, who were awarded a Nobel Prize for their 1959 research, mapped the visual cortex of cats. This research involved the opening of the skull of the subject.They had theorised that because single cells communicate with each other via electrical impulses then it would be possible to probe these single cells with a an extremely fine meter to measure the amount of electrical activity in a cell without damaging it, thereby allowing them to evaluate perceptual experience at a cellular level. Hubel & Wiesel basically restrained a cat , opened its skull, probed it’s brain and then showed the cat 7 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology moving images and kept probing until they could record the level of cellular electrical activity.This gave us an insight into how we visual perceive the world and the physical action that takes pl ace in the brain. (Solso, et al. , 2008) Memory, Storage and Models Cognitive Psychology is viewed as a pure science, its accepted theories on memory, for example, are based on laboratory experiments with demonstrable results as well as solid work in case studies. For example the Multi store Model (MSM) by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968, 1971) cited by (McLeod, 2007) attempted to explain how information is transferred from Short Term Memory to Long Term Memory.This model views sensory memory, STM and LTM as â€Å"permanent structural components† and suggests that memory is made up of a series of stores. MSM likens memory as information flowing through a system. Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory. If attended to this information enters the short term memory. Information from the STM is transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed. If rehearsal does not occur, then information is forgotten, lost from short term memo ry through the processes of displacement or decay. McLeod, 2007) This model has influenced the study and research of memory and is supported and informed by studies of retrograde and anterograde amnesia. The Working Model of Memory (Baddely & Hitch, 1974), shows that short term memory is more than one store and consists of different components. Similarly, in long term memory different kinds of memory such as addition/subtraction, how to play chess or what we did yesterday are not stored in one ‘hard-drive’ type long term memory store. There are different types of memory, episodic (memory of events), procedural (memory of how to do 8 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology hings) and semantic (general knowledge). This model of memory espouses that rehearsal is the process whereby by we transfer information into Long term memory but that it is not necessary to rehearse in some cases. . We know, now, that the part of the brain that deals with memory is the hippocampus; it i s part of the limbic system and deals with short term memory and long term memory, as well as spatial functions, the hippocampus is shown in this diagram. As we can see, there are hippocampi; there is a hippocampus in both sides of the brain. The hippocampus is part of the cerebral cortex and is located in the medial temporal lobe.Damage to the hippocampus can result in a person being unable to store new memories and is quite devastating to a person’s quality of life. In the case of Clive Wearing, based on Baddely, 1990; Blakemore 1988 as cited in (Gross, 2010), who suffered from anterograde amnesia, we can see the effects of damage to the hippocampus, in this case caused by a rare brain infection caused by the cold sore virus (Herpes Simplex). Mr. Wearing lives almost as if he is frozen in time, constantly believing he has just woken from years of unconscious sleep. He retains developed skills, for example he was the chorus master of the London Sinfonietta.Unfortunately for Mr. Wearing his ability to recall memories from earlier in his life is extremely patchy, at best. Atkinson and Schiffrin regard the kind of memory Deficits displayed by Clive Wearing as ‘perhaps the single most convincing demonstration of a dichotomy in the memory system’ (Gross, 2010) 9 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Therapeutic Applications Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is based on how our thoughts, feelings and behaviour all interact with each other; our thoughts influence our feelings and behaviour.CBT helps the client to develop alternate ways of thinking and behaving in order to reduce psychological distress. Through reflective processes and tasks such as homework, the client’s maladaptive thought process and behaviour is challenged. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is a blanket term for different therapeutic interventions that share similar characteristics. Two therapies which form the basis of CBT are Rational Emot ive Behaviour Therapy, developed by Albert Ellis in the 1950s, and Cognitive Therapy, developed by Aaron T.Beck in the 1960’s. Beck puts forward the argument that our emotional reactions are essentially a function of how we construe the world. â€Å"Depressed people see themselves as victims, and Beck sees them as victims of their own illogical self-judgements. Beck’s central idea is that depressed individuals feel as they do because their thinking is dominated by negative schemas. † (Gross, 2010) Beck essentially implies that we interpret our reality by using our cognitive processes and our perception.If our perceptions are skewed because our cognitive processes are maladaptive or our methods of reasoning are incorrect then our emotions and behaviour become distorted from reality. In order to correct emotional or psychological disturbances then we must seek to examine the root of the problem, viewing this through the lens of cognition means that we must correct our thought process in order to correct the symptomatic behavioural and emotional disorder. Beck uses method’s to treat a disorder depending on the disorder that the client suffers from. He stresses the importance of the quality of the relationship between the client and therapist.Beck also places particular emphasis on the client discovering misconceptions for themselves. (McLeod, 2008) Albert Ellis’ Rational Emotional Behavioural Therapy is quite contrasting to Becks method. Ellis Proposes that the therapist should be a teacher and that a warm personal relationship is unnecessary. REBT can also be highly directive, persuasive and confrontational. REBT also uses different methods of approach to a client’s issue depending on the client’s personality. Human cognition can be held responsible for the individual’s successes and accomplishments, according to CBT cognition can also be held responsible for our problems. You are responsible for the outcom e of the situation’ It emphasises control over one’s behaviour and emotions through correcting thought processes. The nature of Cognitive 10 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Psychology/Science allow cognitive theories to be tested in a variety of situations, for example Rimm & Litvak’s 1969 (McLeod, 2008) study shows that When experimental subjects are manipulated into adopting unpleasant assumptions or thought they became more anxious and depressed.Moreover, many people with diagnosed psychological disorders such as anxiety and sexual disorders have been found to display maladaptive thoughts and assumptions, making a case for the effectiveness of CBT. Aaron Beck’s work in researching depression and order disorders in clinical as well as laboratory settings and testing memory and other cognitive functions, and in particular his outcome studies have shown that CBT can be highly effective. CBT is also used in the treatment of drug abuse, bipolar disor der and in patients with cancer, HIV, OCD, PTSD and schizophrenia.It has also been theoretically applied in the treatment of psychopathy. Evaluation/Personal Learning Upon examining the field of Cognitive Psychology, I have learned that cognitive Psychology is adaptive. It evolves with the times and incorporates new technologies, but also has a serious grounding in scientific methodology in order to correctly examine and understand the human mind. Cognitive Psychology is informed by the greater umbrella that is cognitive science. For example it uses information from computer science and neuroscience in order to better understand the cognitive processes that exist in the human brain.Given that the ‘mind’ is not a physical entity; this style of scientific inquiry may be the best approach in understanding it. There is a good scientific framework underlying Cognitive psychology which then allows the Psychologist to move forward and deal with issues presented by the mind. As we can see in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, the therapist approaches the abstract nature of the mind by focusing on the underlying mental hierarchy. That being, Cognition, Emotion, Behaviour, in order to treat symptomatic issues, the therapist using this approach must deal with the thought processes that create these symptoms.The most important lesson that I have learned is that, while the mind is an abstract construct and is quite difficult to quantify, quantifiable information about physical constructs such as the brain and general human biology and chemistry and its influences informs the understanding of the human mind. 11 Shane Galvin-061 AT-Applied Psychology Bibliography Baddely, A. & Hitch, G. , 1974. Working Memory. In: G. Bower, ed. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory. New York: Academic Press, pp. 47-89.Gerrig, R. J. & Zimbardo. , &. P. G. , 2002. Glossary. [Online] Available at: http://www. apa. org/research/action/glossary. aspx [Accessed 14 November 2012]. Gross, R. , 2010. Psychology The Science of Mind and Behaviour. 6th ed. London: HodderArnold. McLeod, S. , 2007. Atkinson and Shiffrin | Multi Store Model of Memory.. [Online] Available at: http://www. simplypsychology. org/multi-store. html [Accessed 16 November 2012]. McLeod, S. , 2007. http://www. simplypsychology. org/cognitive. html. [Online] Available at: fromhttp://www. implypsychology. org/cognitive-therapy. html [Accessed 10 November 2012]. McLeod, S. , 2008. Simply Psychology, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. [Online] Available at: http://www. simplypsychology. org/cognitive-therapy. html [Accessed 12 November 2012]. Neisser, U. , 1967. Cognitive Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Solso, R. L. , Maclin, O. H. & Maclin, M. K. , 2008. Cognitive Psychology. 8th ed. Boston: Pearson. Tulving, E. & Schacter, D. L. , 1990. Priming and Human Memory Systems. Science, Volume 247, pp. 301-306. 12