Study of Impact Shocks in Fencing

Study of repair Shocks in Fencing reckonFencing is a mellowed intensity sport involving dynamic social movements which erupt the musculoskeletal agreement to high clash forces that may lead to oerexploitation injuries. One of the most frequently use high stir movements is the throw. With numerous different types of sports invertebrate footgear open providing different levels of midsole cushioning, selecting the most suitable for a sport may be a factor in preventing the encroachment of blot. The localize of this line of business was to investigate the magnitudes of the passing(a) axial repair concussion experienced at the shin raise amid traditional fence horse app atomic number 18l and regular athletic footwear during the pertain phase of the shut in material lurch. meridian tibial reversal was mensural in 19 manful fencers in 4 different footwear conditions using an accelerometer placed on the distal aspect of the tibia. The standard footwear re sulted in signifi rear endistert reductions in detail tinge jolt in relation to the traditional close in raiments. therefore the reduction in uphold impact found offers that outpouring or squash specialized footwear may reduce utilize crack occurrence. However, despite this, the majority of participants indicated that they preferred fence in specific footwear for fencing material material. The results of this work suggest that there is justification for a re-design of fencing habilitate.Introduction hawkish fencing (foil, sabre and epee) has experienced a rapid increase in participation rates during the past decade (Harmer, 2008). The sport places unique demands on the jock and is characterised by asymmetry and the incidence of rapid motions which obligate the latent to generate large forces (Geil, 2002). In particular, the frequently apply lunge which is the keister of most attacking motions is a high affect movement (Kopetka Stewart, 2005).The amplific ation in participation combined with the bio mechanic demands of the sport has led to enhanced consciousness of the incidence of injuries associated with fencing. Nonetheless, prospective, epidemiological studies of the incidence of repetitive strain and overuse injuries in fencing ar scarce. As a result, it is difficult to draw unspoilt cultures regarding the etiology of fencing injuries and their prevention based on impartial selective information (Roi Bianchedi, 2008). However existing studies indicate that overuse injuries account for approximately 30% of injuries that interfere with teach (Carter et al., 1993). The majority of injuries are confined to the wiped out(p)er extremities (e.g., taste fractures, impingement enthesopathies of the patellar tendon and tibia and plantar fascia) associated with fencing (Harmer, 2008, bonkers et al., 2001 Zemper Harmer, 1996) characteristic of dynamic activities involving high fastness change in pulsing actions (Harmer, 2008).No apparent info has been published providing information regarding the total issuing of lunges executed during a competitive bout. However, Roi and Bianchedi (2008) suggest that there are anywhere between 66 and 210 attacks (depending on the weapon) during a contender, which given the lunges function as the most common attacking mechanism, it appears that fencers will be regularly subjected to the daze forces imposed by the lunge.One of the characteristics of the foot impacting the surface during a lunge is a rapid change in velocity of the foot and this velocity r distributivelyes zero upon foot placement in a short expiration of time (Whittle, 1999). This impact leads to the transmission of an axial transient shock shudder through the eubstance and carries with it the potential for injury. It is main(prenominal) to recognise that loading is essential for maintenance of cartilage, bone, and muscle health (Stone, 1988). An optimal loading window for meander strength can b e characterized by frequent impacts of certain magnitude, duration, and frequency. Movements beyond the optimal loading window can lead to the breakdown of body tissue and overuse injuries (Hardin et al., 2003).The magnitude of the impact shock is comm and thrifty using accelerometers. Accelerometers are traditionally placed onto the genuflect overlying the tibia to quantify the transient impact shockwave during motion. Despite the consensus that delicate tissue interferes with the speedup recording of underlying bone, the utilization of skin mounted gizmos is considered appropriate provided they are lightweight and rigidly attached to the overlying skin (Shorten and Windslow, 1992). This method has been used to examine the cushioning properties of athletic footwear (Lake Greenhalgh, 2005) and better differentiates between impact conditions compared to data acquired using a force political program (Lafortune Hennig, 1992). The high impact nature of the lunge implies that the lower extremities may be at danger from overuse injuries.To date there is no information available regarding the potentially detrimental effect of the impact accelerations experienced during this movement. However, epidemiological studies suggest that a relationship exists between the magnitude of the transient shockwave and the etiology of a fare of lower extremity overuse injuries (Nigg Segesser, 1992). Therefore with a significant arrive of lunges being undertaken by a fencer and the potential connection between the magnitude of the impact shockwave and the incidence of overuse injuries makes it important to investigate the shock attenuation properties of fencing footwear.The 1992 U.S Fencing Association review of the factors that may bear to fencing injuries indicates that of the three indigenous areas for prevention, deficient equipment and facilities may be obligated for as many as 28% of the injuries associated with fencing, with ineffective footwear forming a signific ant component (Carter et al., 1993). The review noted problems with fencing shoes citing unforesightful cushioning as rise up as the lack of footwear designs that could protect against the high impact nature of the sport, particularly lunging. To reduce injury, Zemper and Harmer (1996) pull in suggested a redesign of fencing shoes.The essential function of athletic footwear as described by Stacoff et al., (1988) is to provide shock attenuation. The properties of athletic footwear welcome been linked to the prevention of overuse injuries. With many different types of sports footwear available providing different levels of midsole cushioning, selecting the most suitable for a sport can be vital in preventing the onset of injury. Fencing equipment retailers in the UK suggest real few options for specific footwear, with only 2 major brands on offer (Adidas and Hi Tec). It also appears that the fencing shoe has been more(prenominal) specifically knowing for the function of the trail foot to enable good grip on the piste as well as maximising the life span of the shoe if dragging the back foot, which is common in fencing.The limited availability of specific shock attenuating footwear to the fencer may predispose fencers to overuse injuries. The majority of studies analyzing the lick of different footwear conditions on impact dynamics have focused on running.Therefore, the aim of the present study was twofold. First, to assess the magnitude of the peak axial tibial transient accelerations associated with the lunge in fencing to provide practitioners with information regarding the potential causes of injury. Secondly, to compare two specific fencing shoes with two standard sports shoes (running and squash) with regards to their shock attenuating properties during the lunge movement.In particular, it was predicted that peak axial transient accelerations were lower in shoes which have been particularly developed for shock absorbing qualities (running and squ ash shoes) in comparison to fencing shoes during the stance phase of the fencing lunge.MethodsParticipantsNineteen male (17 right handed and 2 left handed) competitive fencers with a stripped of 2 years experience (Age 25.6 + 8.3 years Height 1.78 + 0.5 m lean 76.8 + 9.0 kg) comprising a mixture of the foil (n=2), epee (n=15) and sabre (n=1) disciplines, volunteered to take part in this study. All were injury free at the time of data entreaty and completed an informed consent form. The procedure was approved by a university ethical board.MaterialsEach participant was fitted with four pairs of shoes for the study. The shoes were the corresponding for each participant they differed in size only (sizes 9 and 10 mens UK sizes) and consisted of a conventional running shoe (Saucony Grid forum), squash shoe (Hi-Tec squash indoor) and fencing shoes (Hi-Tec blade) and (Adidas en guard). A tri-axial (Biometircs ACL 300) accelerometer sampling at 1000Hz was utilized to measure axial accele rations at the tibia. The winding was mounted on a piece of lightweight carbon-fibre material. The combined weight of the accelerometer and mounting promoter was 9g. The voltage sensitivity of the bode was set to 100mV/g, allowing adequate sensitivity with a measurement range of 100 g.The device was attached securely to tip stick on the distal anterio- median aspect of the shank 8 cm above the medial maleolus in alignment with its longitudinal axis of rotation.This location was selected as the boniest prominence of the distal tibia in accordance with the Nokes et al., (1984) conclusions to improve the mechanical join of the accelerometer mounting to the tibia and reduce artefact due to interposing soft-tissue. The accelerometer was positioned so that acceleration was measured in the direction up the tibia (Figure 1). steady adhesive tape was placed over the device and the lower leg to avoid overestimating the peak positive acceleration due to tissue artefact. The device was attached as close to the tibia as possible, the skin on overlying the bone itself was stretched and then ensuring a more rigid coupling between accelerometer and tibia. Furthermore, adhesive tape was positioned over the device itself to ensure it was maintain in a fixed position along the longitudinal axis of the tibia. The acceleration signal was sent to a Biometrics data logger with a 2 GB memory card. The data logger was tied securely to a lightweight backpack to reduce movement of the device during trials.ProcedureThe fencers completed a suitable warm-up and were allowed two proceeding to familiarize themselves with the experimental protocol and footwear condition earlier to the send-off of data collection. They were then have a bun in the ovend to complete ten lunges hitting a dummy with their weapon in each footwear condition whilst reverting to a starting point (pre-determined by each participant prior to the commencement of data capture) following each trial to contro l lunge distance. Each trial was comprised of a lunge where contact between the make and dummy defined a successful outcome. The starting point for the movement was adjusted and maintained. The order in which the different footwear conditions were worn was randomized. Upon conclusion of the data collection participants were asked to subjectively indicate which shoe they preferred for fencing. energising data was quantified/processed using Biometrics data-log software. The stance phase of each trial was acquired from each accelerometer signal for analysis. Peak positive axial tibial acceleration was defined as the highest positive acceleration peak measured during the stance phase after a 60Hz 1st order low pass filter had been implemented in accordance with the Lake and Greenhalgh (2005) recommendations.The mean value of the footfalls per participant/condition for the axial component of the acceleration signal was quantified and used for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable including means and standard deviations. Differences between footwear conditions were examined via a within subjects repeated measures analysis of variance with significance accepted at the pResultsA statistical military group analysis of pilot data was conducted in order to reduce the likelihood of a type II error and determine the minimum make out of participants needed for this investigation. It was found that the sample size was sufficient to provide more than 80% of statistical power in the experimental measure. Figure 2 provides the mean and standard deviations for the peak tibial accelerations for the four different shoe types. The Mauchlys sphericity assumption was violated and as such the degrees of freedom of the F statistic was adjusted via the Greenhouse Geisser correction. The Shapiro-Wilk statistic for each footwear condition confirmed that the data was normally distributed. The analysis of variance was significant (F (1.97, 35.52) = 16.31 P DiscussionThe aim of this study was to determine the differences in the magnitude of the transient acceleration between traditional fencing shoes and standard athletic footwear during the impact phase of the fencing lunge. The results of this study support our hypothesis, in that the magnitudes of the axial impact shockwaves were significantly lower in both the running and squash shoes compared to the traditional fencing footwear.The transient shockwave is linked to the development of a compartmentalization of overuse injuries (Whittle, 1999). It is essential to acknowledge the link between the magnitude of these forces and overuse injuries, as the frequency of these conditions can be reduced by attenuating the impact magnitude (Whittle, 1999). Therefore the significant reduction in impact shock found would suggest that running/squash footwear may support in the reduction of overuse injury occurrence.Interestingly, despite the higher impact magnitude and concerns regard ing the potential development of overuse injuries, the majority of participants indicated that they preferred fencing specific footwear for fencing. This finding agrees with those of Geil (2002) who hypothesized that this finding centred on plantar sensational proprioceptive mechanisms, whereby the feel of the fencing piste underneath the foot is reduced in shoes that offer a high degree of midsole cushioning. Geil (2002) suggested that footwear may influence fencing performance. They noted that increased midsole cushioning and travel of the foot during compression may lead to slower motion of the feet, which in exploit could contribute to diminished velocity of the weapon hand, reducing the overall doing quality of the movement itself.Based on these findings it appears that midsole cushioning properties should play only a partial role in the design characteristics of an effective fencing shoe. Fencing involves a number of movement strategies in addition to the lunge, and as such shoe designs mustiness cater to this. Fencers like most athletes require sure footing during contest as such footwear designs must deliver adequate traction to provide stability during lunging, attacking and retreating motions. Furthermore, the medial forefoot of the trail shoe is an area traditionally subjected to high abrasion forces and thus heavy wear. Manufacturers should therefore focus attention on developing more resistant materials for this purpose to prolong the lifespan of the shoe. Whilst shock attenuation is the primary function of midsole cushioning, the elastic energy stored and recovered by cushioning systems has been proposed as a mechanism by which the oxygen cost of movement can be reduced. Given the aerobic demands the sport of fencing places on the athlete (Roi Bianchedi, 2008) additional research should focus on this factor as it may serve to slow the onset of fatigue and improve performance.The results of this study however, suggest that there is approxim ately justification for the Zemper and Harmer (1996) recommendations regarding the re-design of fencing shoes due to the present high transient impact forces on the front foot during the lunge. The primary design dilemma facing footwear manufacturers is to include features that would serve to lessened the large impact forces and help reduce overuse injuries. At the identical time, the design characteristics should also provide the fencer with an adequate feel for the fencing piste beneath the foot.The severe angle between foot-segment and ground on sign contact is also significant when designing the shoe. The shoe cushioning system must therefore provide protection in the extreme offer of the heel, an area not normally associated with consistent high impact forces in other sports. The obvious asymmetry of the sport presents a challenge to footwear manufacturers and arguments can be made for the development of asymmetrical footwear designs.several(prenominal) different surfaces in fencing are used. Surface stiffness can have a significant influence on the magnitude of the impact shock during landing (Kim et al., 1994). This study was conducted during training sessions on a training surface as opposed to a traditional piste used during competition thus the results obtained may not adequately represent actual competition. During competition a hard floor can be used, as well as a metallic piste (either a cloth placed over the hard floor or a hard metallic piste). approaching research should therefore concentrate on the magnitude of the impact shock during competition on a true fencing piste.LimitationsAccelerometry is a compound approach and methodological problems can affect the efficacy of collected data (Lake and Greenhalgh 2005). The magnitude of the signal obtained from the accelerometer is dependent on the mounting interaction, making overcompensate study comparisons difficult. Soft tissue artefact can also influence the acceleration recording of und erlying bone (Light et al., 1980). Attaching the device directly to bone represents the most accurate method of measuring impact shock and gain ground work is demand to determine the efficacy of the less traumatic skin mounting technique.The device signal is also reliant on the receptive acceleration due to angular motion of the shank in the mesial plane during ground contact (Lafortune and Hennig 1991). Lake and Greenhalgh (2005) noted that despite the application of a distally mounted device, correction for angular motion may be quiet be necessary. Further research should be conducted to investigate the necessary signal corrections for angular motion.Another potential limitation/restriction of this study is that the results obtained are entirely specific to the footwear and ground surface conditions, any variation in these parameters would most likely cause changes to the participants fencing kinetics/kinematics. In addition this study analyzed the lunge motion only. The lunge represents a high impact motion however there are other movements of lower intensity which may still be important in terms of the development of overuse injuries. Therefore, additional research is necessary regarding the influence of footwear on the magnitude of the transient shockwave during different fencing movements before appropriate prescriptions of fencing footwear can be made.ReferencesCarter, C., Heil, J., and Zemper E. (1993). What hurts and wherefore Data from the 1992 USFA Fencing Injury Survey shows some common culprits. American Fencing. 43, p 16-17.Geil, M.D. (2002). The Role of Footwear on Kinematics and Plantar Foot jam in Fencing. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 18, p 155-162.Harmer, P.A. (2008). Getting to the point injury patterns and medical care in competitive fencing. Current Sports medicament Reports. 7, 303-307.Kim, W., Voloshin, A.S., and Johnson S.H. (1994). model of the heel strike transients during running. Human Movement apprehension, 13, 221-244 .Kopetka, B., and Stewart, S.L. (2005).The kinematic determinants of speed in the fencing lunge. (Part 1). Journal of Sports Sciences, 2, 105.Lafortune, M., and Hennig, E. (1991). Contribution of angular motion and gravity to tibial acceleration. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 360-363.Lafortune, M. A., Hennig, E. M. (1992). Cushioning properties of footwear during walking accelerometer and force platform measurements. Clinical Biomechanics, 7, 181-184.Lake, M.J. (2000). Determining the protective function of sports footwear. Ergonomics, 43, 1610-1621.Lake, M.J., and Greenhalgh, A. (2005). Impact shock measurements during running correction for angular velocity of the shank is necessary. Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Footwear Biomechanics. Cleveland, Ohio, USA.Nigg, B.M., Segesser, B. (1992). Biomechanical and orthopaedic concepts in sport shoe construction. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24, 595-602.Nokes, L., Fairclough, J.A., Mintowt-Czyz, W .J., Mackie, I., and Williams, J., (1984). Vibrational analysis of human tibia The effect of soft tissue on the output from skin mounted accelerometers. Journal of biomedical Engineering, 6, 223-226.Roi, G.S., and Bianchedi, D. (2008). The Science of Fencing Implications for Performance and Injury Prevention. Sports Medicine, 38, 465-481.Shorten, M.R., and Winslow, D.S. (1992). Spectral Analysis of Impact Shock During Running. International Journal of Sports Biomechanics, 8, 288-304.Stacoff, A., Denoth, J., Kaelin, X., and Stuessi, E. (1988). Running injuries and shoe construction some possible relationships. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics 4, 342-357.Whittle, M.W. (1999). The generation and attenuation of transient forces beneath the foot a review. Gait and Posture, 10, 264-275.Wild, AM., Jaeger, C., Poehl, C., Werner, A., Raab, P., and Krauspe, R. (2001). Morbidity profile of high performance fencers. Sportverletz Sportschaden, 15, 59-61.Zemper, E.D., Harmer, P.A. (19 96). Fencing. In D.J. Calne, C.G. Caine, K.J. Lindner (ed.), Epidemiology of Sports Injuries (pp 186-195). Champaign, IL Human Kinetics.